਀吀栀攀 一漀戀攀氀 倀爀椀稀攀 椀渀 䌀栀攀洀椀猀琀爀礀  ㄀㤀㤀㔀 㰀⼀栀㈀㸀

Paul J. Crutzen

਀㰀瀀㸀搀攀挀漀洀瀀漀猀椀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀

਀圀栀攀渀 漀稀漀渀攀 椀猀 瀀爀漀搀甀挀攀搀 椀琀 眀椀氀氀 搀攀挀愀礀 爀愀瀀椀搀氀礀Ⰰ 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 漀稀漀渀攀 椀猀 愀渀 椀渀猀琀愀戀氀攀 挀漀洀瀀漀甀渀搀 眀椀琀栀 愀 爀攀氀愀琀椀瘀攀氀礀 猀栀漀爀琀 栀愀氀昀ⴀ氀椀昀攀⸀ 吀栀攀 栀愀氀昀ⴀ氀椀昀攀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀 椀渀 眀愀琀攀爀 椀猀 愀 氀漀琀 猀栀漀爀琀攀爀 琀栀愀渀 椀渀 愀椀爀 ⠀猀攀攀 琀愀戀氀攀 ㄀⤀⸀ 伀稀漀渀攀 搀攀挀愀礀猀 椀渀 眀愀琀攀爀 甀渀搀攀爀 搀爀椀渀欀椀渀最 眀愀琀攀爀 挀漀渀搀椀琀椀漀渀猀 ⠀瀀䠀㨀 㘀ⴀ㠀Ⰰ㔀⤀Ⰰ 瀀愀爀琀氀礀 椀渀 爀攀愀挀琀椀瘀攀 伀䠀ⴀ爀愀搀椀挀愀氀猀⸀ 吀栀攀爀攀昀漀爀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 愀猀猀攀猀猀洀攀渀琀 漀昀 愀渀 漀稀漀渀攀 瀀爀漀挀攀猀猀 愀氀眀愀礀猀 椀渀瘀漀氀瘀攀猀 琀栀攀 爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀猀 漀昀 琀眀漀 猀瀀攀挀椀攀猀㨀 漀稀漀渀攀 愀渀搀 伀䠀ⴀ爀愀搀椀挀愀氀猀⸀ 圀栀攀渀 琀栀攀猀攀 伀䠀ⴀ爀愀搀椀挀愀氀猀 愀爀攀 椀渀 琀栀攀 搀漀洀椀渀愀渀琀 瀀愀爀琀椀挀氀攀猀 椀渀 琀栀攀 猀漀氀甀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 椀琀 椀猀 挀愀氀氀攀搀 愀渀 愀搀瘀愀渀挀攀搀 漀砀椀搀愀琀椀漀渀 瀀爀漀挀攀猀猀 ⠀䄀伀倀⤀⸀ 吀栀攀 搀攀挀愀礀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀 椀渀 伀䠀ⴀ爀愀搀椀挀愀氀猀 椀渀 渀愀琀甀爀愀氀 眀愀琀攀爀猀 椀猀 挀栀愀爀愀挀琀攀爀椀稀攀搀 戀礀 愀 昀愀猀琀 椀渀椀琀椀愀氀 搀攀挀爀攀愀猀攀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀Ⰰ 昀漀氀氀漀眀攀搀 戀礀 愀 猀攀挀漀渀搀 瀀栀愀猀攀 椀渀 眀栀椀挀栀 漀稀漀渀攀 搀攀挀爀攀愀猀攀猀 戀礀 昀椀爀猀琀 漀爀搀攀爀 欀椀渀攀琀椀挀猀 嬀㄀㔀崀⸀ 䐀攀瀀攀渀搀攀渀琀 漀渀 琀栀攀 焀甀愀氀椀琀礀 漀昀 琀栀攀 眀愀琀攀爀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 栀愀氀昀ⴀ氀椀昀攀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀 椀猀 椀渀 琀栀攀 爀愀渀最攀 漀昀 猀攀挀漀渀搀猀 琀漀 栀漀甀爀猀⸀ 䘀愀挀琀漀爀猀 椀渀昀氀甀攀渀挀椀渀最 琀栀攀 搀攀挀漀洀瀀漀猀椀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀 椀渀 眀愀琀攀爀 愀爀攀 琀攀洀瀀攀爀愀琀甀爀攀Ⰰ 瀀䠀Ⰰ 攀渀瘀椀爀漀渀洀攀渀琀 愀渀搀 挀漀渀挀攀渀琀爀愀琀椀漀渀猀 漀昀 搀椀猀猀漀氀瘀攀搀 洀愀琀琀攀爀 愀渀搀 唀嘀 氀椀最栀琀⸀ 䠀攀爀攀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 洀愀椀渀 椀渀昀氀甀攀渀挀攀 昀愀挀琀漀爀猀 昀漀爀 漀稀漀渀攀 搀攀挀漀洀瀀漀猀椀琀椀漀渀 眀椀氀氀 戀攀 搀椀猀挀甀猀猀攀搀⸀ 

਀䤀渀昀氀甀攀渀挀攀 昀愀挀琀漀爀猀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 ਀㄀⸀ 吀攀洀瀀攀爀愀琀甀爀攀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 ਀吀攀洀瀀攀爀愀琀甀爀攀 栀愀猀 愀渀 椀洀瀀漀爀琀愀渀琀 椀渀昀氀甀攀渀挀攀 漀渀 琀栀攀 栀愀氀昀ⴀ氀椀昀攀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀⸀ 吀愀戀氀攀 ㄀ 猀栀漀眀猀 琀栀攀 栀愀氀昀ⴀ氀椀昀攀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀 椀渀 愀椀爀 愀渀搀 眀愀琀攀爀⸀ 䤀渀 眀愀琀攀爀 琀栀攀 栀愀氀昀ⴀ氀椀昀攀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀 椀猀 洀甀挀栀 猀栀漀爀琀攀爀 琀栀愀渀 椀渀 愀椀爀Ⰰ 椀渀 漀琀栀攀爀 眀漀爀搀猀 漀稀漀渀攀 搀攀挀漀洀瀀漀猀攀猀 昀愀猀琀攀爀 椀渀 眀愀琀攀爀 嬀㄀崀⸀ 吀栀攀 猀漀氀甀戀椀氀椀琀礀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀 搀攀挀爀攀愀猀攀猀 愀琀 栀椀最栀攀爀 琀攀洀瀀攀爀愀琀甀爀攀猀 愀渀搀 椀猀 氀攀猀猀 猀琀愀戀氀攀⸀ 伀渀 琀栀攀 漀琀栀攀爀 栀愀渀搀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀 猀瀀攀攀搀 椀渀挀爀攀愀猀攀猀 眀椀琀栀 愀 昀愀挀琀漀爀 ㈀ 漀爀 ㌀ 瀀攀爀 ㄀　 뀀䌀 嬀㔀Ⰰ㘀崀⸀ 倀爀椀渀挀椀瀀愀氀氀礀Ⰰ 漀稀漀渀攀 搀椀猀猀漀氀瘀攀搀 椀渀 眀愀琀攀爀 挀愀渀渀漀琀 戀攀 愀瀀瀀氀椀攀搀 眀栀攀渀 琀攀洀瀀攀爀愀琀甀爀攀猀 愀爀攀 愀戀漀瘀攀 㐀　 뀀䌀Ⰰ 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 愀琀 琀栀椀猀 琀攀洀瀀攀爀愀琀甀爀攀 琀栀攀 栀愀氀昀ⴀ氀椀昀攀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀 椀猀 瘀攀爀礀 猀栀漀爀琀⸀

਀㈀⸀ 瀀䠀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 ਀䄀猀 洀攀渀琀椀漀渀攀搀 愀戀漀瘀攀Ⰰ 漀稀漀渀攀 搀攀挀漀洀瀀漀猀攀猀 瀀愀爀琀氀礀 椀渀 伀䠀ⴀ爀愀搀椀挀愀氀猀⸀ 圀栀攀渀 琀栀攀 瀀䠀 瘀愀氀甀攀 椀渀挀爀攀愀猀攀猀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 昀漀爀洀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 伀䠀ⴀ爀愀搀椀挀愀氀猀 椀渀挀爀攀愀猀攀猀⸀ 䤀渀 愀 猀漀氀甀琀椀漀渀 眀椀琀栀 愀 栀椀最栀 瀀䠀 瘀愀氀甀攀Ⰰ 琀栀攀爀攀 愀爀攀 洀漀爀攀 栀礀搀爀漀砀椀搀攀 椀漀渀猀 瀀爀攀猀攀渀琀Ⰰ 猀攀攀 昀漀爀洀甀氀愀猀 戀攀氀漀眀⸀ 吀栀攀猀攀 栀礀搀爀漀砀椀搀攀 椀漀渀猀 愀挀琀 愀猀 愀渀 椀渀椀琀椀愀琀漀爀 昀漀爀 琀栀攀 搀攀挀愀礀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀㨀

਀㄀                                      伀㌀ ⬀ 伀䠀ⴀ  鈀 䠀伀㈀ⴀ ⬀ 伀㈀             ਀㈀                                      伀㌀ ⬀ 䠀伀㈀ⴀ 鈀 ∀伀䠀 ⬀ 伀㈀ ∀ⴀ ⬀ 伀㈀   

਀吀栀攀 爀愀搀椀挀愀氀猀 琀栀愀琀 愀爀攀 瀀爀漀搀甀挀攀搀 搀甀爀椀渀最 爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀 ㈀ 挀愀渀 椀渀琀爀漀搀甀挀攀 漀琀栀攀爀 爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀猀 眀椀琀栀 漀稀漀渀攀Ⰰ 挀愀甀猀椀渀最 洀漀爀攀 伀䠀ⴀ爀愀搀椀挀愀氀猀 琀漀 戀攀 昀漀爀洀攀搀⸀

਀䤀渀 愀搀搀椀琀椀漀渀 琀栀攀 瀀䠀 椀渀昀氀甀攀渀挀攀猀 愀挀椀搀⼀戀愀猀攀 攀焀甀椀氀椀戀爀椀甀洀猀 漀昀 猀漀洀攀 挀漀洀瀀漀甀渀搀猀 愀渀搀 愀氀猀漀 琀栀攀 爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀 猀瀀攀攀搀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 愀瀀瀀氀椀攀猀 愀氀猀漀 琀漀 琀栀攀 爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀 眀椀琀栀 猀挀愀瘀攀渀最攀爀 䌀伀㌀㈀ⴀⰀ 眀栀椀挀栀 椀猀 愀氀猀漀 瀀䠀 搀攀瀀攀渀搀愀渀琀 ⠀倀欀愀 䠀䌀伀㌀㈀ⴀ⼀䌀伀㌀㈀ⴀ 㴀 ㄀　Ⰰ㌀⤀⸀

਀䘀椀最甀爀攀 ㄀ 猀栀漀眀猀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 搀攀挀愀礀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀 椀渀 愀 戀愀猀椀挀 攀渀瘀椀爀漀渀洀攀渀琀 椀猀 洀甀挀栀 昀愀猀琀攀爀 琀栀愀渀 椀渀 愀渀 愀挀椀搀 攀渀瘀椀爀漀渀洀攀渀琀⸀

਀ ਀ ਀ ਀ ਀䘀椀最甀爀攀 ㄀㨀 攀昀昀攀挀琀 漀昀 琀栀攀 瀀䠀 漀渀 琀栀攀 搀攀挀愀礀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀 ⠀吀 㴀 ㄀㔀 뀀䌀⤀

਀㌀⸀ 䐀椀猀猀漀氀瘀攀搀 猀漀氀椀搀猀 挀漀渀挀攀渀琀爀愀琀椀漀渀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 ਀䐀椀猀猀漀氀瘀攀搀 漀稀漀渀攀 挀愀渀 爀攀愀挀琀 眀椀琀栀 愀 瘀愀爀椀攀琀礀 漀昀 洀愀琀琀攀爀Ⰰ 猀甀挀栀 愀猀 漀爀最愀渀椀挀 挀漀洀瀀漀甀渀搀猀Ⰰ 瘀椀爀甀猀攀猀Ⰰ 戀愀挀琀攀爀椀愀Ⰰ 攀琀挀⸀ 䄀猀 愀 爀攀猀甀氀琀Ⰰ 漀稀漀渀攀 搀攀挀漀洀瀀漀猀攀猀 琀漀 漀琀栀攀爀 洀愀琀琀攀爀㬀 猀攀攀 昀椀最甀爀攀 ㈀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 昀椀最甀爀攀 椀氀氀甀猀琀爀愀琀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 栀愀氀昀ⴀ氀椀昀攀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀 椀渀 搀椀猀琀椀氀氀攀搀 眀愀琀攀爀 椀猀 洀甀挀栀 猀栀漀爀琀攀爀Ⰰ 挀漀洀瀀愀爀攀搀 琀漀 琀愀瀀ⴀ眀愀琀攀爀⸀

਀ ਀ ਀ ਀䘀椀最甀爀攀 ㈀㨀 伀稀漀渀攀 搀攀挀漀洀瀀漀猀椀琀椀漀渀 椀渀 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀 琀礀瀀攀猀 漀昀 眀愀琀攀爀 愀琀 ㈀　 뀀䌀⸀ ㄀ 㴀 搀漀甀戀氀攀ⴀ搀椀猀琀椀氀氀攀搀 眀愀琀攀爀㬀 ㈀ 㴀 搀椀猀琀椀氀氀攀搀 眀愀琀攀爀㬀 ㌀ 㴀 琀愀瀀 眀愀琀攀爀㬀 㐀 㴀 最爀漀甀渀搀眀愀琀攀爀 漀昀 氀漀眀 栀愀爀搀渀攀猀猀㬀 㔀 㴀 昀椀氀琀攀爀攀搀 眀愀琀攀爀 昀爀漀洀 䰀愀欀攀 娀甀爀椀挀栀 ⠀匀眀椀琀稀攀爀氀愀渀搀⤀㬀 㘀 㴀 昀椀氀琀攀爀攀搀 眀愀琀攀爀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀攀 䈀漀搀攀渀猀攀攀 ⠀匀眀椀琀稀攀爀氀愀渀搀⤀

਀伀稀漀渀攀 搀攀挀漀洀瀀漀猀攀猀 椀渀 眀愀琀攀爀 椀渀 伀䠀ⴀ爀愀搀椀挀愀氀猀⸀ 䐀攀瀀攀渀搀攀渀琀 漀渀 琀栀攀 渀愀琀甀爀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 搀椀猀猀漀氀瘀攀搀 洀愀琀琀攀爀Ⰰ 琀栀攀猀攀 挀愀渀 愀挀挀攀氀攀爀愀琀攀 ⠀挀栀愀椀渀ⴀ爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀⤀ 漀爀 猀氀漀眀 搀漀眀渀 琀栀攀 搀攀挀愀礀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀⸀ 匀甀戀猀琀愀渀挀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 愀挀挀攀氀攀爀愀琀攀 琀栀椀猀 爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀 愀爀攀 挀愀氀氀攀搀 瀀爀漀洀漀琀攀爀猀⸀ 䤀渀栀椀戀椀琀漀爀猀 愀爀攀 猀甀戀猀琀愀渀挀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 猀氀漀眀 搀漀眀渀 琀栀攀 爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀⸀

਀圀栀攀渀 眀愀琀攀爀 椀猀 漀稀漀渀椀稀攀搀Ⰰ 漀渀攀 漀昀琀攀渀 甀猀攀猀 琀栀攀 琀攀爀洀 ✀猀挀愀瘀攀渀最椀渀最 挀愀瀀愀挀椀琀礀✀⸀ 匀挀愀瘀攀渀最攀爀猀 愀爀攀 攀渀琀椀琀椀攀猀 琀栀愀琀 爀攀愀挀琀 眀椀琀栀 伀䠀ⴀ爀愀搀椀挀愀氀猀 愀渀搀 猀氀漀眀 搀漀眀渀 琀栀攀 挀栀愀椀渀ⴀ爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀⸀ 吀栀攀 猀挀愀瘀攀渀最椀渀最 挀愀瀀愀挀椀琀礀 挀愀渀 戀攀 搀攀昀椀渀攀搀 愀猀 昀漀氀氀漀眀猀 嬀㄀㘀崀㨀

਀欀伀䠀ⴀ䐀伀䌀嬀䐀伀䌀崀 ⬀ 欀伀䠀ⴀ䠀䌀伀㌀ⴀ嬀䠀䌀伀㌀ⴀ崀 ⬀ 欀伀䠀ⴀ䌀伀㌀㈀ⴀ嬀䌀伀㌀㈀ⴀ崀

਀㐀⸀ 䌀愀爀戀漀渀愀琀攀 愀渀搀 戀椀挀愀爀戀漀渀愀琀攀

਀匀挀愀瘀攀渀最攀爀猀 猀氀漀眀 搀漀眀渀 琀栀攀 挀栀愀椀渀ⴀ爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 椀猀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 愀昀琀攀爀 琀栀攀 爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 猀挀愀瘀攀渀最攀爀猀 眀椀琀栀 伀䠀ⴀ爀愀搀椀挀愀氀猀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀 瀀爀漀搀甀挀琀猀 搀漀 渀漀琀 爀攀愀挀琀 眀椀琀栀 漀稀漀渀攀 愀渀礀 昀甀爀琀栀攀爀⸀ 䌀愀爀戀漀渀愀琀攀 椀猀 愀 猀挀愀瘀攀渀最攀爀 眀椀琀栀 愀 猀琀爀漀渀最 攀昀昀攀挀琀⸀ 吀栀攀 愀搀搀椀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 挀愀爀戀漀渀愀琀攀 ⠀䌀伀㌀㈀ⴀ⤀ 挀愀渀 椀渀挀爀攀愀猀攀 琀栀攀 栀愀氀昀ⴀ氀椀昀攀 漀昀 漀稀漀渀攀 嬀㔀Ⰰ㘀崀⸀ 吀栀攀 攀昀昀攀挀琀 漀渀 琀栀攀 爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀 猀瀀攀攀搀 椀猀 栀椀最栀攀猀琀 愀琀 氀漀眀 挀漀渀挀攀渀琀爀愀琀椀漀渀猀⸀ 䄀戀漀瘀攀 ㈀ 洀洀漀氀ⴀ㄀ 昀漀爀 漀稀漀渀椀猀愀琀椀漀渀 愀渀搀 ㌀ 洀洀漀氀 氀ⴀ㄀ 昀漀爀 愀搀瘀愀渀挀攀搀 漀砀椀搀愀琀椀漀渀 瀀爀漀挀攀猀猀 ⠀䄀伀倀⤀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 搀攀挀爀攀愀猀攀 椀渀 琀栀攀 爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀 猀瀀攀攀搀 椀猀 渀攀最氀椀最椀戀氀攀 嬀㘀崀⸀

਀圀栀攀渀 愀 猀漀氀甀琀椀漀渀 洀愀椀渀氀礀 甀渀搀攀爀最漀攀猀 椀渀搀椀爀攀挀琀 爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀猀 ⠀眀椀琀栀 伀䠀ⴀ爀愀搀椀挀愀氀猀⤀Ⰰ 昀漀爀 椀渀猀琀愀渀挀攀 椀渀 愀 猀漀氀甀琀椀漀渀 眀椀琀栀 愀 栀椀最栀 瀀䠀 瘀愀氀甀攀 漀爀 愀渀 䄀伀倀ⴀ瀀爀漀挀攀猀猀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 瀀爀攀猀攀渀挀攀 漀昀 猀挀愀瘀攀渀最攀爀猀 椀猀 甀渀搀攀猀椀爀攀搀⸀ 吀栀攀 猀挀愀瘀攀渀最攀爀猀 爀攀愀挀琀 瘀攀爀礀 昀愀猀琀 眀椀琀栀 伀䠀ⴀ爀愀搀椀挀愀氀猀 愀渀搀 氀漀眀攀爀 琀栀攀 漀砀椀搀愀琀椀漀渀 挀愀瀀愀挀椀琀礀⸀ 䘀漀爀 琀栀椀猀 欀椀渀搀 漀昀 瀀爀漀挀攀猀猀攀猀 愀 氀漀眀 猀挀愀瘀攀渀最椀渀最 挀愀瀀愀挀椀琀礀 椀猀 爀攀焀甀椀爀攀搀⸀

਀䌀愀爀戀漀渀愀琀攀 ⠀䌀伀㌀㈀ⴀ⤀ 椀漀渀猀 愀爀攀 愀 洀甀挀栀 猀琀爀漀渀最攀爀 猀挀愀瘀攀渀最攀爀猀 琀栀愀渀 戀椀挀愀爀戀漀渀愀琀攀 ⠀䠀䌀伀㌀㈀ⴀ⤀ 椀漀渀猀 ⠀爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀 猀瀀攀攀搀 䌀伀㌀㈀ⴀ㨀 欀 㴀 㐀Ⰰ㈀ ⨀ ㄀　㠀 䴀ⴀ㄀猀ⴀ㄀ 愀渀搀 爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀 猀瀀攀攀搀 䠀䌀伀㌀ⴀ㨀 欀 㴀 ㄀⸀㔀 ⨀ ㄀　㜀 䴀ⴀ㄀猀ⴀ㄀⤀⸀ 吀栀愀琀 椀猀 眀栀礀 椀渀 愀渀 漀稀漀渀攀 瀀爀漀挀攀猀猀 甀渀搀攀爀 搀爀椀渀欀椀渀最 眀愀琀攀爀 挀漀渀搀椀琀椀漀渀猀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 戀椀挀愀爀戀漀渀愀琀攀 挀漀渀挀攀渀琀爀愀琀椀漀渀 椀猀 氀攀猀猀 椀洀瀀漀爀琀愀渀琀 嬀㘀崀⸀ 䘀椀最甀爀攀 ㌀ 椀氀氀甀猀琀爀愀琀攀猀 琀栀攀 爀攀氀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 琀栀攀 挀愀爀戀漀渀愀琀攀 爀愀琀椀漀Ⰰ 戀椀挀愀爀戀漀渀愀琀攀 爀愀琀椀漀 愀渀搀 瀀䠀⸀ ਀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 ਀ 一愀琀甀爀愀氀 伀爀最愀渀椀挀 䴀愀琀攀爀椀愀氀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 ਀一愀琀甀爀愀氀 漀爀最愀渀椀挀 洀愀琀攀爀椀愀氀 ⠀一伀䴀⤀ 攀砀椀猀琀猀 椀渀 攀瘀攀爀礀 欀椀渀搀 漀昀 渀愀琀甀爀愀氀 眀愀琀攀爀 愀渀搀 椀猀 漀昀琀攀渀 洀攀愀猀甀爀攀搀 愀猀 搀椀猀猀漀氀瘀攀搀 漀爀最愀渀椀挀 挀愀爀戀漀渀 ⠀䐀伀䌀⤀⸀ 一伀䴀 爀攀搀甀挀攀猀 琀栀攀 焀甀愀氀椀琀礀 漀昀 琀栀攀 眀愀琀攀爀 眀椀琀栀 爀攀最愀爀搀 琀漀 挀漀氀漀爀 愀渀搀 漀搀漀爀⸀ 伀稀漀渀攀 挀愀渀 戀攀 甀猀攀搀 椀渀 眀愀琀攀爀 琀爀攀愀琀洀攀渀琀Ⰰ 昀漀爀 琀栀攀 爀攀搀甀挀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 琀栀攀 挀漀渀挀攀渀琀爀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 一伀䴀⸀ 吀栀攀 挀漀渀挀攀渀琀爀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 一伀䴀 椀渀 渀愀琀甀爀愀氀 眀愀琀攀爀猀 挀愀渀 瘀愀爀礀 昀爀漀洀 　Ⰰ㈀ ጀ ㄀　 洀最 氀ⴀ㄀ 嬀㘀崀⸀ 吀栀攀 椀渀昀氀甀攀渀挀攀 漀昀 一伀䴀 漀渀 漀稀漀渀攀 椀猀 琀眀漀昀漀氀搀⸀ 䐀攀瀀攀渀搀攀渀琀 漀渀 琀栀攀 琀礀瀀攀 漀昀 一伀䴀Ⰰ 椀琀 挀愀渀 戀攀 漀砀椀搀椀稀攀搀 搀椀爀攀挀琀氀礀 戀礀 一伀䴀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 椀猀 琀栀攀 挀愀猀攀 昀漀爀 挀漀洀瀀漀甀渀搀猀 眀栀椀挀栀 攀愀猀椀氀礀 爀攀愀挀琀 眀椀琀栀 漀稀漀渀攀Ⰰ 猀甀挀栀 愀猀 搀漀甀戀氀攀 戀漀渀搀猀Ⰰ 愀挀琀椀瘀愀琀攀搀 愀爀漀洀愀琀椀挀 挀漀洀瀀漀甀渀搀猀Ⰰ 搀攀瀀爀漀琀漀渀愀琀攀搀 愀洀椀渀攀猀 愀渀搀 猀甀氀瀀栀椀搀攀 嬀㄀㔀崀⸀ 伀渀 琀栀攀 漀琀栀攀爀 栀愀渀搀Ⰰ 伀䠀ⴀ爀愀搀椀挀愀氀猀 挀愀渀 爀攀愀挀琀 眀椀琀栀 一伀䴀 ⠀椀渀搀椀爀攀挀琀 爀攀愀挀琀椀漀渀⤀ 愀渀搀 愀挀琀 愀猀 愀 瀀爀漀洀漀琀攀爀 漀爀 愀猀 愀 猀挀愀瘀攀渀最攀爀⸀ In natural waters, it is difficult to determine the stability of ozone as a result of the indefinite effect of NOM. That means it is not possible to estimate the fraction that accelerates or slows down the reaction਀ ਀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 ਀ ਀ ਀ ਀ ਀ ਀ ਀ ਀ ਀䤀 眀愀猀 戀漀爀渀 椀渀 䄀洀猀琀攀爀搀愀洀 漀渀 䐀攀挀攀洀戀攀爀Ⰰ ㌀Ⰰ ㄀㤀㌀㌀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 猀漀渀 漀昀 䄀渀渀愀 䜀甀爀欀 愀渀搀 䨀漀稀攀昀 䌀爀甀琀稀攀渀⸀ 䤀 栀愀瘀攀 漀渀攀 猀椀猀琀攀爀 眀栀漀 猀琀椀氀氀 氀椀瘀攀猀 椀渀 䄀洀猀琀攀爀搀愀洀 眀椀琀栀 栀攀爀 昀愀洀椀氀礀⸀ My mother's parents moved to the industrial Ruhr region in Germany from East Prussia towards the end of the last century. They were of mixed German and Polish origin. In 1929 at the age of 17, my mother, moved to Amsterdam to work as a housekeeper. There she met my father. He came from Vaals, a little town in the southeastern corner of the Netherlands, Bordering Belgium and Germany and very close to the historical German city of Aachen. He died in 1977. He had relatives in the Netherlands, Germany and Belgium. Thus, from both parents I inherited a cosmopolitan view of the world. My mother, now 84 years old, still lives in Amsterdam, mentally very alert, but since a few months ago, wheelchair-bound. Despite having worked in several countries outside The Netherlands since 1958, I have remained a Dutch citizen.਀㰀瀀㸀 In May, 1940, The Netherlands were overrun by the German army. In September of the same year I entered elementary school, "de grote school" (the big school), as it was popularly called. My six years of elementary school largely overlapped with the 2nd World War. Our school class had to move between different premises in Amsterdam after the German army had confiscated our original school building. The last months of the war, between the fall of 1944 and Liberation Day on May, 5, 1945, were particularly horrible. During the cold "hongerwinter" (winter of famine) of 1944-1945, there was a severe lack of food and heating fuels. Also water for drinking, cooking and washing was available only in limited quantities for a few hours per day, causing poor hygienic conditions. Many died of hunger and disease, including several of my schoolmates. Some relief came at the beginning of 1945 when the Swedish Red Cross dropped food supplies on parachutes from airplanes. To welcome them we waved our red, white and blue Dutch flags in the streets. I had of course not the slightest idea how important Sweden would become later in my life. We only had a few hours of school each week, but because of special help from one of the teachers, I was allowed together with two other schoolmates to continue to the next and final class of elementary school; unfortunately, all the others lost a year. More or less normal school education only became possible again with the start of the new school year in the fall of 1945.਀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 In 1946, after a successful entrance exam, I entered the "Hogere Burgerschool" (HBS), "Higher Citizen School", a 5 year long middle school, which prepared for University entrance. I finished this school in June, 1951, with natural sciences as my focal subjects. However, we all also had to become proficient in 3 foreign languages: French, English and German. I got considerable help in learning languages from my parents: German from my mother, French from my father. During those years, chemistry definitely was not one of my favourite subjects. They were mathematics and physics, but I also did very well in the three foreign languages. During my school years I spent considerable time with a variety of sports: football, bicycling, and my greatest passion, long distance skating on the Dutch canals and lakes. I also played chess, which in the Netherlands is ranked as a "denksport" (thought sport). I read widely about travels in distant lands, about astronomy, as well as about bridges and tunnels. Unfortunately, because of a heavy fever, my grades in the final exam of the HBS were not good enough to qualify for a university study stipend, which was very hard to obtain at that time, only 6 years after the end of the 2nd world war and a few years after the end of colonial war in Indonesia, which had been a large drain on Dutch resources. As I did not want to be a further financial burden on my parents for another 4 years or more (my father, a waiter, was often unemployed; my mother worked in the kitchen of a hospital), I chose to attend the Middelbare Technische School (MTS), middle technical school, now called the higher technical school (HTS), to train as a civil engineer. Although the MTS took 3 years, the second year was a practical year during which I earned a modest salary, enough to live on for about 2 years. From the summer of 1954 until February, 1958, with a 21-month interruption for compulsory military service in The Netherlands, I worked at the Bridge Construction Bureau of the City of Amsterdam. In the meanwhile, on a vacation trip in Switzerland, I met a sweet girl, Terttu Soininen, a student of Finnish history and literature at the University of Helsinki. A few years later I was able to entice her to marry me. What a great choice I made! She has been the center of a happy family; without her support, I would never have been able to devote so much of my time to studies and science. After our marriage in February, 1958, we settled in Gävle, a little town about 200 km north of Stockholm, where I had found a job in a building construction bureau. In December of that same year our daughter Ilona was born. In March, 1964, she got a little sister, Sylvia. Ilona is a registered nurse. Her son Jamie Paul is 12 years old. Sylvia is a marketing assistant in München, Germany. All were present in Stockholm, Uppsala and Gävle during the Nobel week. We had a happy and unforgettable time.਀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 All this time I had longed for an academic career. One day, at the beginning of 1958, I saw an advertisement in a Swedish newspaper from the Department of Meteorology of Stockholm Högskola (from 1961, Stockholm University) announcing an opening for a computer programmer. Although I had not the slightest experience in this subject, I applied for the job and had the great luck to be chosen from among many candidates. On July 1, 1959, we moved to Stockholm and I started with my second profession. At that time the Meteorology Institute of Stockholm University (MISU) and the associated International Meteorological Institute (IMI) were at the forefront of meteorological research and many top researchers worked in Stockholm for extended periods. Only about a year earlier the founder of the institutes, Prof. Gustav Rossby, one of the greatest meteorologists ever, had died suddenly and was succeeded by Dr. Bert Bolin, another famous meteorologist, now "retired" as director of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). At that time Stockholm University housed the fastest computers in the world (BESK and its successor FACIT).਀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 With the exception of participation in a field campaign in northern Sweden, led by Dr. Georg Witt to measure the properties of noctilucent clouds, which appear during summer at about 85 km altitude in the coldest parts of atmosphere, and some programming work related to this, I was until about 1966 mainly involved in various meteorological projects, especially helping to build and run some of the first numerical (barotropic) weather prediction models. I also programmed a model of a tropical cyclone for a good friend, Hilding Sundquist, now a professor at MISU. At that time programming was a special art. Advanced general computer languages, such as Algol or Fortran, had not been developed, so that all programmes had to be written in specific machine code. One also had to make sure that all operations yielded numbers in the range -1 < x < 1, which meant that one had to scale all equations to stay within these limits; otherwise the computations would yield wrong results.਀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 The great advantage of being at a university department was that I got the opportunity to follow some of the lecture courses that were offered at the university. By 1963 I could thus fulfill the requirement for the filosofie kandidat (corresponding to a Master of Science) degree, combining the subjects mathematics, mathematical statistics, and meteorology. Unfortunately, I could include neither physics nor chemistry in my formal education, because this would have required my participation in time consuming laboratory excercises. In this way I became a pure theoretician. I have, however, always felt close to experimental work, which I have strongly supported during my later years as director of research at the National Center of Atmospheric Research (NCAR) in Boulder, Colorado (1977-1980) and at the Max-Planck-Institute for Chemistry in Mainz, Germany (since 1980).਀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 Being employed at the meteorological research institute, it was quite natural to take a meteorological topic for my filosofie licentiat thesis (comparable to a Ph.D. thesis). Building on my earlier experience further development of a numerical model of a tropical cyclone had been proposed to me. However, around 1965 I was given the task of helping a scientist from the U.S. to develop a numerical model of the oxygen allotrope distribution in the stratosphere, mesosphere and lower thermosphere. This project got me highly interested in the photochemistry of atmospheric ozone and I started an intensive study of the scientific literature. This gave me an understanding of the status of scientific knowledge about stratospheric chemistry by the latter half of the 1960's, thus setting the "initial conditions" for my scientific career. Instead of the initially proposed research project, I preferred research on stratospheric chemistry, which was generously accepted. At that time the main topics of research at the Meteorological Institute at the University of Stockholm were dynamics, cloud physics, the carbon cycle, studies of the chemical composition of rainwater, and especially the "acid rain" problem which was largely "discovered" at MISU through the work of Svante Odén and Erik Eriksson. Several researchers at MISU, among them Prof. Bolin and my good friend and fellow student Henning Rodhe, now Professor in Chemical Meteorology at MISU, got heavily involved in the issue which drew considerable political interest at the first United Nation Conference on the Environment in Stockholm in 1972. However, I wanted to do pure science related to natural processes and therefore I picked stratospheric ozone as my subject, without the slightest anticipation of what lay ahead. In this choice of research topic I was left totally free. I can not overstate how I value the generosity and confidence which were conveyed to me by my supervisors Prof. Georg Witt, an expert on the aeronomy of the upper atmosphere, and the head of MISU Prof. Bert Bolin. They were always extremely helpful and showed great interest in the progress of my research.਀

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